Contribuciones y análisis normativo para la integración de la energía eólica en sistemas de energía eléctrica

[SPA] La energía eólica representa una de las energías de origen renovable con mayor implantación en nuestros días. Este hecho se debe, en gran parte, a los avances en tecnología de aerogeneradores y sistemas auxiliares. En paralelo al aumento de la capacidad de generación eólica, surge la necesidad de desarrollar normativas que regulen este sector energético emergente. De hecho, debido a que los aspectos regulatorios se encuentran en constante actualización, se ha decidido realizar la presente Tesis Doctoral abordando diferentes ámbitos normativos. En primer lugar, cabe resaltar que la investigación aplicada sobre ensayo de curvas de potencia de aerogeneradores se encuentra en pleno desarrollo. Todavía hoy en la Norma Internacional vigente relativa a la caracterización de la curva de potencia de aerogeneradores, la velocidad del viento a la altura del buje es el parámetro principal de entrada para la caracterización de dicha curva. Esta suposición implica que la velocidad del viento es constante en toda el área barrida del rotor. Sin embargo, el diámetro del rotor y la altura de los aerogeneradores presentes en el mercado actual son considerablemente mayores de los que existían cuando se publicó dicha Norma en el año 2005. Por este motivo, actualmente existe un Comité Técnico encargado de la actualización de esta Norma, donde se han vertido parte de las contribuciones y aportaciones de esta Tesis. Por otro lado, y con el objeto de estandarizar la gran variedad de modelos de simulación de aerogeneradores que existe en el sector, a nales del año 2009 se creó un Comité Técnico dedicado al desarrollo de modelos simpli cados de aerogeneradores y parques eólicos, en el que uno de los Directores de la presente Tesis es el responsable del Comité Español. Dicho Comité Técnico se encuentra actualmente inmerso en el desarrollo de una Norma en la que se están de niendo modelos de aerogeneradores capaces de ser integrados en estudios de estabilidad de los sistemas eléctricos ante grandes perturbaciones. Esta Tesis ha participado con sus aportaciones en los primeros pasos que se han dado en este ámbito. En tercer lugar, y debido a la sensibilidad de la aparamenta eléctrica y de los componentes electrónicos frente a perturbaciones, la evaluación de su comportamiento en sistemas eléctricos en general y en parques eólicos en particular resulta ser un tema de elevado interés en la actualidad. Más aún cuando la normativa actual requiere de un mayor conocimiento sobre el comportamiento eléctrico de estos componentes, así como las variables más in uyentes en el mismo. En esta línea, la presente Tesis incluye una amplia variedad de ensayos realizados sobre diverso equipamiento eléctrico presente en instalaciones de generación de energía eólica ante las perturbaciones más habituales. En suma, la presente Tesis Doctoral contribuye a resolver las cuestiones normativas descritas en los párrafos anteriores, al mismo tiempo que analiza su in uencia en la integración de la energía eólica en los sistemas eléctricos. [ENG] Nowadays, wind energy represents one of the renewable energy sources with the largest establishment. This development is largely due to the advancement in wind turbine technology and ancillary systems. In parallel with the increase of the wind power capacity, standards to control this emerging energy sector are needed. Since these normalisation concerns results in a constant update, it has been decided to perform the present Doctoral Thesis dealing with several regulatory aspects. First of all, it should be pointed out that the research related to power curve performance of wind turbines is in continuous development. Even today in the current edition of the International Standard related to power curve performance, the wind speed at hub height is the primary input parameter for power curve measurements. This assumption implies that wind speed is constant over the whole turbine swept rotor area. However, both rotor diameter and hub height of modern wind turbines are signi cantly large in comparison with the wind turbines developed in 2005, when the Standard was issued. For this reason, a Technical Committee has recently been created devoted to update this Standard, where some of the contributions of this Thesis are included. Secondly, with the aim of standardizing the huge diversity of simulation models for wind turbines present in the wind energy sector, at the end of 2009 a Technical Committee focused on the development of generic models for both wind turbines and wind farms was created. The national responsible of this Committee supervises this Thesis. Currently, this Technical Committee is developing an International Standard where wind turbine models for the integration of wind power generation in studies of large-disturbance power system stability are de ned. This Thesis has collaborated towards the rst steps for the development of this Standard. In the third place and due to the sensitivity of electrical equipment and electronic components to electromagnetic disturbances, nowadays the assessment of their behavior in power systems in general and in wind farms in particular represents an interesting issue. Furthermore, both a higher knowledge and the most in uential parameters are required by the current standards. From this point of view, the present Thesis includes a wide variety of tests carried out over di erent electrical equipment commonly used in wind farms under most typical electromagnetic disturbances. Taking into account these considerations, the present Doctoral Thesis contributes to the solution of the regulatory concerns pointed out in the preceding paragraphs, together with an analysis of their in uence on the integration of wind energy in power systems.Universidad Politécnica de Cartagen

The Use of Electrical Measurements of Wind Turbine Generators for Drive Train Condition Monitoring

More modern and larger wind turbine (WT) generators are under continuous development. These exhibit more faults than smaller ones, which becomes critical offshore. Under this framework, operation and maintenance (O&M) is the key to improve reliability and availability of WTs, where condition-based maintenance (CBM) is currently seen as the preferred approach by the early detection and diagnosis of critical faults for WTs. The induction generator is one of the biggest contributors to failure rates and downtime of WTs, together with the gearbox and the drive train. In the present chapter, current signature analysis (CSA) will be introduced as a means for fault detection of WTs. CSA is a cost-effective and nonintrusive technique that can monitor both mechanical and electrical faults within the induction generator, as well as bearing- and gearbox-related faults. Different test cases of in-service wind turbine generators will be used to illustrate its usefulness

Vertical wind profile characterization and identification of patterns based on a shape clustering algorithm

Wind power plants are becoming a generally accepted resource in the generation mix of many utilities. At the same time, the size and the power rating of individual wind turbines have increased considerably. Under these circumstances, the sector is increasingly demanding an accurate characterization of vertical wind speed profiles to estimate properly the incoming wind speed at the rotor swept area and, consequently, assess the potential for a wind power plant site. The present paper describes a shape-based clustering characterization and visualization of real vertical wind speed data. The proposed solution allows us to identify the most likely vertical wind speed patterns for a specific location based on real wind speed measurements. Moreover, this clustering approach also provides characterization and classification of such vertical wind profiles. This solution is highly suitable for a large amount of data collected by remote sensing equipment, where wind speed values at different heights within the rotor swept area are available for subsequent analysis. The methodology is based on z-normalization, shape-based distance metric solution and the Ward-hierarchical clustering method. Real vertical wind speed profile data corresponding to a Spanish wind power plant and collected by using a commercialWindcube equipment during several months are used to assess the proposed characterization and clustering process, involving more than 100000 wind speed data values. All analyses have been implemented using open-source R-software. From the results, at least four different vertical wind speed patterns are identified to characterize properly over 90% of the collected wind speed data along the day. Therefore, alternative analytical function criteria should be subsequently proposed for vertical wind speed characterization purposes.The authors are grateful for the financial support from the Spanish Ministry of the Economy and Competitiveness and the European Union —ENE2016-78214-C2-2-R—and the Spanish Education, Culture and Sport Ministry —FPU16/042

Electricity consumption analysis for university buildings. Empirical approach for University of Castilla-La Mancha, campus Albacete (Spain)

[EN] New global situation is boosting the necessity of analysing electricity consumption of university buildings, mainly motived by the exorbitant increase in electricity prices. In this regard, knowing such demand aims at three goals: i) to reduce their consumption, ii) to increase energy efficiency and iii) to develop solar PV installations. Very few research has previously analysed aggregated energy data for educational buildings, and none have studied detailed real electricity consumption in terms of hourly data, which results of utmost relevance, especially for the development of solar PV installations in these environments. Our research tackles this issue and provides a complete methodology to analyse electrical energy and hourly data consumption in university buildings, based on electricity indicators and patterns. The research has been applied to the University of Castilla-La Mancha, in Spain. A complete year data base (2021) of real power and electrical energy consumption of the whole campus has been collected and analysed, with an hourly scale. Results revealed that Biomedical Complex corresponds to the highest load demanding building of the campus (2770 MWh, 43% of the total campus). Outcomes also disclosed an annual high consumption base of 250 kWh for this building, together with 6 different seasonality patterns and 2 annual daily patterns.This work was supported in part by the Spanish Public Administration "Ministerio de Universidades" under the grant Margarita Salas-Universitat Politècnica de València, funded by the European Union-Next Generation EU, by the Council of Communities of Castilla-La Mancha (Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, JCCM) through project SBPLY/19/180501/000287 and by the European Regional Development Fund (Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional, FEDER).Bastida-Molina, P.; Torres-Navarro, J.; Honrubia-Escribano, A.; Gómez Lázaro, E. (2022). Electricity consumption analysis for university buildings. Empirical approach for University of Castilla-La Mancha, campus Albacete (Spain). Aedermacp (EA4EPQ). 216-221. https://doi.org/10.24084/repqj20.26621622

A detailed analysis of electricity consumption at the University of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain)

[EN] The current energy crisis has drastically altered forecast electricity plans and budgets for European university campuses. This situation heightens the need to analyze their electrical consumption, with two main goals: identifying their patterns and promoting the development of renewable installations for these consumers. Previous research has focused only on aggregated demand data, with the studies being based on estimations and forecasts, and focused mainly on single buildings. Moreover, there is a lack of scientific papers that provide a replicable codebase for electricity analysis. Our work presents a novel methodology to overcome these research gaps, proposing the first comprehensive, replicable and scalable codebase to analyze electricity consumption in universities. It is based on three steps. The first comprises automated data collection of real electricity measurements at each electricity supply point. The second develops the complete analysis of electricity consumption. The last step parameterizes this consumption by identifying seasonal and daily profiles. The research was applied to the University of Castilla-La Mancha, campus Albacete (Spain) case study. The results revealed the 4 highest electricity-demanding buildings: Biomedical Complex, Higher Technical School of Industrial and Computer Engineering, Vice-rectorate and Library, and Higher Technical School of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering. The results are thus of great value for other educational buildings.We are grateful to the Infrastructure Management Office of the UCLM and Mr. Jose Jaen Cebrian (Technician of Infrastructures for UCLM-AB) for providing information about the campus equipment related to this research. This work was partially supported by the Ministry of Science and Innovation, the European Union (Next GenrationEU), the AEI through project PID2021-126082OB-C21 and by the Council of Communities of Castilla-La Mancha (Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, JCCM) through project SBPLY/19/180501/000287.Bastida-Molina, P.; Torres-Navarro, J.; Honrubia-Escribano, A.; Gallego-Giner, I.; Gómez-Lázaro, E. (2023). A detailed analysis of electricity consumption at the University of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain). Energy and Buildings (Online). 289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.11304628

Generic Type 3 WT models: comparison between IEC and WECC approaches

The widespread use of renewable energies around the world has generated the need for new tools and resources to allow them to be properly integrated into current power systems. Power system operators need new dynamic generic models of wind turbines and wind farms adaptable to any vendor topology and which permit transient stability analysis of their networks with the required accuracy. Under this framework, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) have developed their own generic dynamic models of wind turbines for stability analysis. Although these entities work in conjunction, the focus of each is slightly different. The WECC models attempt to minimise the complexity and number of parameters needed, while the IEC approach aims to optimise comparison with real turbine measurements. This study presents a detailed comparison between these two different approaches for modeling a Type 3 (i.e., DFIG) wind turbine in MATLAB/Simulink. Finally, several simulations are conducted, with which the consequences of the different approaches are evaluated. The results of this paper are of interest to power system operators as well as wind turbine manufacturers who require further assistance in adapting their specific models to the simplified versions provided by the International Committees

Long-Term Operational Data Analysis of an In-Service Wind Turbine DFIG

(c) 2019 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained for all other users, including reprinting/ republishing this material for advertising or promotional purposes, creating new collective works for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted components of this work in other works.[EN] While wind turbine (WT) power capacities continue to increase and new offshore developments are being deployed, operation and maintenance (O&M) costs continue to rise, becoming the center of attention in the wind energy sector. The electric generator is among the top three contributors to failure rates and downtime of WTs, where the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) is the dominant technology among variable speed WTs. Thus, the early detection of generator faults, which can be achieved through predictive maintenance, is vital in order to reduce O&M costs. The goal of this paper is to analyze a long-term monitoring campaign of an in-service WT equipped with a DFIG. A novel method named the harmonic order tracking analysis is used with two main objectives: first, to facilitate the data interpretation for non-trained maintenance personnel, and second, to reduce the amount of data that must be stored and transferred for the diagnosis of the DFIG. This method is applied and validated for the first time on an operating WT.This work was supported in part by the Agreement signed between the UCLM and the Council of Albacete to promote research in the Campus of Albacete, and in part by the European Union Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme through the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Grant (AWESOME Project) under Grant 642108. The authors would like to thank Ingeteam Power Technology S.A. UP Service, part of the AWESOME Project Consortium providing the wind turbine data.Artigao, E.; Sapena-Bano, A.; Honrubia-Escribano, A.; Martinez-Roman, J.; Puche-Panadero, R.; Gómez-Lázaro, E. (2019). Long-Term Operational Data Analysis of an In-Service Wind Turbine DFIG. IEEE Access. 7:17896-17906. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2895999S1789617906

Field Validation of Generic Type 4 Wind Turbine Models Based on IEC and WECC Guidelines

The generic wind turbine models developed in recent years by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the Western Electricity Coordinated Council (WECC) are intended to meet the needs of public, standard, and relatively simple (small number of parameters and computational requirements) wind turbine and wind farm models used to conduct transient stability analysis. Moreover, the full-scale converter (FSC) wind turbine technology referred to as Type 4 by IEC and WECC, is increasingly used in current power systems due to its control benefits. Hence, the development of this generic model has become a priority.This study presents the validation of two generic Type 4 wind turbine models, which have been developed in accordance with the IEC and WECC guidelines, respectively. Field data collected from a real wind turbine located in a Spanish wind farm was used to validate both generic Type 4 wind turbine models following the IEC validation guidelines. Ten different test cases are considered, varying not only the depth and duration of the faults but also the load of the wind turbine. The parameters of the models were kept constant for all the simulation cases, aiming to evaluate the accuracy of the models when facing different voltage dips

Wind resource assessment systems: review of new solutions based on laser technology

[SPA] El potencial eólico de una localización geográfica está directamente relacionado con los perfiles de viento existentes en la misma. Su aprovechamiento está determinado por la curva de potencia del aerogenerador, la cual relaciona la velocidad de viento incidente sobre el rotor eólico con la potencia generada por el aerogeneradoro Según la Norma Internacional vigente relativa al cálculo de la curva de potencia de aerogeneradores, la velocidad del viento a la altura del buje es el parámetro principal de entrada para la caracterización de dicha curva, junto al parámetro de densidad del aire como factor secundario. La afirmación anterior supone que la velocidad del viento es constante en toda el área barrida del rotor eólico, Cuando se trata de aerogeneradores de pequeño tamaño, dicha suposición se puede acercar con cierto grado de exactitud a la realidad, pero en los aerogeneradores actuales dotados de grandes diámetros conduce a errores significativos, ya que la velocidad de viento varía considerablemente a lo largo del área barrida por el rotor; además, es importante mencionar que, en breve, se producirá la reforma de la Normativa anterior, en la que se empezará a tener en cuenta mayor número de medidas dentro del rotor. El presente artículo analiza las nuevas técnicas de medición de la velocidad y dirección del viento basadas en tecnología remota: SODAR y LIDAR, Estas soluciones permiten obtener perfiles de viento dentro de un amplio rango de alturas, lo clIal supone clara mejora en comparación con los sistemas convencionales.[ENG] The available wind speed potential strongly depends on the existing wind profi les at different locations. In this way, the exploitation of this resource can be determined by the wind turbine power curve, relating both wind speed at the rotor hub and electric power from the wind turbine. According to the current international Standard for power performance, the wind speed at hub height is the main input parameter for the characterization of the power curve, being considered the air density as a secondary factor. Under this framework, the wind speed is considered as constant over the whole turbine swept rotor area. This assumption can achieve high level of accuracy for small wind turbines. However, current wind turbines are characterized by a large rotor diameter, being exposed to remarkable variations in wind speed with height. Moreover, this Standard will be modifi ed in a short-term, with the aim of taking into account several wind measurements within the swept rotor area. This paper reviews recent solutions to measure wind speed and direction based on remote sensing systems: SODAR and LIDAR technology. These systems are able to collect vertical wind profi les over a wide range of heights, providing a signifi cant advantage in comparison with conventional approaches.Este trabajo ha sido financiado por el Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (ENE2009-13106) y por la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha (PEII10-0171-1803), ambos cofinanciados con fondos FEDER

Requirements for Validation of Dynamic Wind Turbine Models: An International Grid Code Review

Wind power is positioned as one of the fastest-growing energy sources today, while also being a mature technology with a strong capacity for creating employment and guaranteeing environmental sustainability. However, the stochastic nature of wind may affect the integration of power plants into power systems and the availability of generation capacity. In this sense, as in the case of conventional power plants, wind power installations should be able to help maintain power system stability and reliability. To help achieve this objective, a significant number of countries have developed so-called grid interconnection agreements. These are designed to define the technical and behavioral requirements that wind power installations, as well as other power plants, must comply with when seeking connection to the national network. These documents also detail the tasks that should be conducted to certify such installations, so these can be commercially exploited. These certification processes allow countries to assess wind turbine and wind power plant simulation models. These models can then be used to estimate and simulate wind power performance under a variety of scenarios. Within this framework, and with a particular focus on the new Spanish grid code, the present paper addresses the validation process of dynamic wind turbine models followed in three countries—Spain, Germany and South Africa. In these three countries, and as a novel option, it has been proposed that these models form part of the commissioning and certification processes of wind power plants